Schools and Sects in Islam

Islam, from the beginning, has been affected by a wide variety of trends or schisms. Even the'orthodox' stance of Islam, or Sunni admits four legal'schools,' for example. Shi'ism, or Shia is the main schism from Sunni Islam. Shi'ism itself gave birth to other factions. Sufism eventually is a mystical approach. In that text, we are giving a overview of the practices and perspectives in Islam that have existed during the Carolingian times and which may have a influence unto the Caliphate dominions or even in Muslim Spain. Of note also that the majority of the theological debates that animated -- then defined Islam -- after the death of Muhammad occurred at the time of the Carolingians

The Four Orthodox Schools of Sunni

Sunni is the predominent branch of Islam. It is based upon the Caliphate, which is the political power exerted over all Muslims, and which is appointed not by succession but in imitation of the chosing process that took place between the companions of Muhammad by his death. It is also based upon the interpretation of the Muslim Revelation as performed by the scholars in theology. The 'sunna,' or 'tradition' is constituted by the whole of the deeds and words of Muhammad, or the 'hadiths,' like they were recorded by the companions of the Prophet. This is from those latest views that the four 'orthodox' schools, or rites (or'madhhab') of Sunni Islam appeared. Strictly speaking, these are four schools of law ('sharia') and jurisprudence ('fiqh') aimed to define how to interpreting the rules for the Muslim community, which are rooted in the Qur'an and the life of Muhammad. The four Sunni schools admit the following sources of Sharia: the Qur'an, the 'Sunnah' (or the rules from the 'hadiths,' which are tales of actions of the Prophet), the 'ijma' (the unanimous opinion of the companions of Muhammad on a unsettled point) and 'qiyas' (or the personal reasoning by analogy of a theologian)

• the Hanafi School was founded by Abu Hanifa al-Nu'man ibn Thabit (699-767), who lived in Kufa, Iraq. It is the oldest of the four schools. It adds to the usual four sources the'istihsan,' a decision in accordance with the situation constituted by the local context and times, even if less relevant. The custom, or'urf,' is also taken into account. Founded from the Umayyads, the Hanafi school is the most liberal of the four as it hesitates less with reasoning and it may discuss hypothetical problems, which could get it distant from the hadiths. Abu Hanifa, however, in Kufa, met many companions of Muhammad andmembers of his family who had settled there. Hanafism is allowing the personal interpretation. The Hanafi School is located in Turkey (as the Ottomans officialized it there), Jordan and among Muslims in Central Asia, Asia as well as in India, or, mostly non-Arabic speaking Muslim countries
• the Maliki School was founded by the Great Mosque of Kairouan (current Tunisia) by Malik ibn Anas (711-795), the imam of Medina. As the founder had been born in Medina, the school added to the four sources used by all others, practices -- hadiths -- of the early Muslim inhabitants of Medina because it considers that Muhammad himself likely had endorsed this practice. The main difference between Hanafism and Malikism concern the interpretations of the Sidi-Kretil (or the Book of Law) and the external marks of that difference consist into the way to use one's hands during prayer. Hanafists cross them on their chest, as Malikists hold them opened at their head's level. Maliki School is suspicious against qyas by suspicion of reasoning. A last source is the local custom ('urf') as Malikis also includes the' istislah,' a approach that searches what is most appropriate. The Malikism, generally, is allowing a personal interpretation as it also advocates the reconciliation of diverging views so to preserve the unity of the 'umma', the community of the Believers. The Maliki School is nowadays located in North and West Africa, the Sudan or the Persian Gulf as it was generally found among Arabs
• the Shafi'i School was founded by imam Muhammad ibn Idris al-Chafii (767-820) as it tends to focus on the'fiqh' or the jurisprudence. Its founder was a student of Malik ibn Anas the founder of the Maliki School as he tried to reconcile both the previous schools. Like the other schools, the Shafi'ism establishes a hierarchy of the rules of interpretation of the Qur'an (Qur'an, hadiths, opinion of one companion,'qyas'). It also reflected on the'istishab' which gets new solutions through connections between situations. The main aspect of that school is that it favors the scholars' consensus to the detriments of the personal interpretation. Shafi'is nowaydays are pecularily found in the Muslim countries of the South-East (Indonesia, Malaysia), India and in Egypt as, in the ancient times, there were in Iraq
• the Hanbali School was founded by Ahmed bin Hanbal (780-855) as it is a reaction to the liberalism of 8th century A.D. Mutazilism, when Muslim scholars tried to reconcile Islam and Antiquity's philosophy. The Hanbali School constitutes the most conservative school of Sunni Islam. A collector of the hadiths, it makes from those one of the foundations of Islam (the'sunna') with the'ijma' or, as a last resort,'qyas.' Hanbalism settled into the Arabian Peninsula where it was at the origin, by the 18th century A.D., of the Wahhabism, that doctrine at the origine of nowadays Saudi Arabia. Outside that, Hanbalism is few extant today as it was predominant in Egypt in ancien times

In the 10th century AD., most of the scholars in the Islamic world had joined a theological school known as the 'Ash'arism' whatever their memberships might have been in addition. That school had been founded by Abu Hassan al-Achari (873-935) and it stated a traditional point of view which was, finally, a form of synthesis of debates and schools that had existed since the Hegira, between too many reasoning by liberals, or a refusal of it by the 'Salafs,' the first three generations of scholars who followed Muhammad. Ash'arism solved the question of the relationship between God power and man's freedom by saying that human freedom is limited to choose between good and bad actions, which, as far as they are concerned, are created by Allah. The school further was getting back to the idea that the Qur'an was a revelation and not a contingency. Ash'arism even allowed the 'kalâm,' a form of theological dialectic inspired by the Greeks, both against the Salafs who refused it and the different sects who had practised it. Reasoning could be used in theological disputes, when needed, to prove the correctness of the revelation contained in the Qur'an and the Sunnah (that 'tradition' which is added to the latter). The kalâm however was not philosophy -- of the Aristotle type, for example -- because it did not allow to gain knowledge of God by reasoning. The Ash'ari School was finally followed, about 980 A.D., by 'all the Malikites, three-quarters of the Shafi'ites, a third of the Hanafis, and part of the Hanbalis.' The remaining two-thirds of the Hanafis followed a closely standing school, the Maturidi one, maturidisme, because it was considered as being the heiress of Abû Hanifah himself. That scools develops a point of view barely more favourable to human freedom

Shia

Shia is a schism from'orthodox' or Sunni Islam. It includes around 15 percent of current world Muslim populations as 90 percent of Shiites are found, nowadays, in Iran. Like seen, Shia was born of the secession of Ali (Ali ibn Abu Talib), the cousin to Muhammad and his son-in-law. He, by the late 660's A.D. opposed Caliph Othman (644 -656). His pietism was a expression of theological oppositions relative to the original text of the Qur'an as well as social and political oppositions by the Beduins people, who felt disadvantaged in favor of the Arabs of the Peninsula, in the shares of the Arab conquest. The claims of Ali to the Caliphate based upon the fact that the designation of Abu Bakr as the successor of Muhammad was decided by a meeting of 'Ansârs,' these companions of the Prophet of islam originating from Medina (against 'muhajirun' who had expatriated themselves from Mecca with Muhammad during Hegira). According to the supporters of Ali, Muhammad had designated the latter on several occasions like his successor. Shiites are in favor of that the Arab caliphate succession be made in the lineage of Muhammad (or the'Ahl al-Bayt,' the people of the House [of Muhammad]') and not, as the Sunnis, by designation (which began after the death of the Prophet when his companions together, designated Abu Bakr as the most worthy to succeed him). The leader of the Muslims, who bears the title''imam' rather than that of 'Caliph' is also the religious authority. Ali and his two son, Hassan and Hussein, represent the beginning of the line of imams, the only one order of succession to the head of the Muslim community as recognized by the Shiites. This view also excludes the first three caliphs (Abu Bakr, Omar and Othman) who usurped the succession devoted to Ali. Shia thus founded a branch of Islam separated from Sunni as it presents itself like the Islam self as much of its own right than the latter. It is also characterized by a strong clergy linked to the imam, guardian of Revelation as well as the esoteric tradition. Shia also puts more emphasis on reasoning ('kalam'), free will, and justice. The continuous interpretation of Allah's revelation differs from that of the Sunnis as it is the imams, descendants of the Prophet, who performs it and not scholars (which in Sunni, gave birth to the four accepted schools, which are based on the analyzes of four scholars). Haddiths (stories of acts and facts of Muhammad) referred to by the Shiites are in addition, different from those of the Sunnis. Almost all the majority of Shiites, since 874 A.D. have been described as 'Twelvers' or even 'Jafarists.' It is that kind of Shia which is the one of Iran nowadays. Twelvers believe that the Twelfth Imam, Muhammad's successor, was hidden, which makes it possible to no more focus on the question of political power, as that is accepted passively until the return of the 12th imam, already present in spirit among the believers' community, who will be the 'Mahdi', a sort of Messiah who will establish justice. Until then no power is really legitimate. Sources of law in Shiite Islam are the Qur'an, the Sunna, the hadiths of Muhammad and of the first twelve imams, who are infallible as successors by decision of the Prophet, which was divinely inspired. Shiites commemorate too the death of Hussein, second son of Ali, the most faithful to the attitude of him, who was killed at the Battle of Karbala in 680 A.D., by the troops of the son of Muawiya, his competitor. Shiites promote the concept of'taqlid' by which uneducated people should choose a kind of spiritual director for their everyday life

The Miscellaneous Movements Born From Shia

The Battle of Siffin in 657, then the death of Ali and his son brought questions of succession to the Imamate which gave birth to many new and Shiite sects. We discuss here those concerning the Carolingian times

• Khawarij has its origins in the Battle of Siffin, which opposed Ali to Caliph Muawia, at the occasion of which Ali accepted arbitration. Khawarijits (or 'dissenters') then left Ali denouncing the attitude as, according to them, any arbitration was to be left to Allah. Ali turned against them and defeated them in 658 A.D. Khawarij is a Islamic puritanism, with elected caliphs and egalitarian trends. Many dissensions appeared among Khawarij with Azraqis, who were Persians appeared around 685 practicing political violence. They disappeared as soon as 699 A.D. The Sufris, appeared early also as they accept hiding (or 'taqiya') to escape persecution and they played a important role in Maghreb after the fall of the Umayyads. The Berbers there adhered to Sufri as a basis of their identity mistrust to Islam. Ibadiyya, finally also was present in the Maghreb, as it is peaceful, except in case of self-defense but uncompromising in morals and political matters. Ibadiyyits, nowadays, have maintained themselves in the Sultanate of Oman, in the oasis of Ghardaia (Algeria), Djerba (current Tunisia) or Zanzibar
• Isma'ilism appeared with the death of the sixth imam, Jafar as-Sadiq, by 765 A.D., after his imamat which lasted 34 years and had seen Shiites gotten interested into Mutazilism and to the intellectual endeavour of the Abbasid caliphs. Isma'ilists, generally, are the 'Seveners' as they only acknowledge the first 7 Shiite imams. The succession of Jafar was challenged. He had appointed his son, Ismail, as his successor and the fate of him turned different as seen from different clans involved (including the Shiites). Finally, four hidden imams were considered to have succeded Jafar until that Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi became the imam of his followers in 881 A.D. and moved to Kairouan. Rallying many Berbers, he eventually had the authority of the Caliph of Baghdad on Ifriqya (909 A.D.) overturned, from Kabylie (a region in current Algeria), he destroyed the kingdom of Tahert (909 A.D.) and founded the city Mahdia (Tunisia), where he proclaimed himself caliph. In 969 A.D., after several attempts and after consolidating the Maghreb against the maneuvers of the Umayyads in Cordoba and Idrissids in Morocco, these 'Fatimids' (as they claimed to descend from Fatima) took Egypt. After the founding of city of Cairo, the imam-caliphs developed a policy for the use of Jews and Christians in their administration. Imam-caliph al-Hakim (985-1021 A.D.) even founded in 1004 another House of Wisdom, the 'House of Knowledge,' were Hellenistic heritage served like a basis to studies like law, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics. The assassination of Al-Hakim led to the Druze schism, which considers Al-Hakim like the hidden Imam and Mahdi. Subsequent issues of succession, in 1094 A.D., led to the 'reformed' Isma'ilism and Sufism. Reformed Isma'ilis nowadays recognize the Aga Khan like their leader. The other branch after the split is nowadays found in India, Pakistan, Syria and Yemen. Isma'ilis, generally, relies on a Gnosis influenced by neo-Platonism (hence esoteric) and the Sharia. The imam has to lead to a higher truth. Because of persecution, the Isma'ilis recognize the 'taqiyya,' a concealment technique. Reformed Isma'ilis permanently abandoned the ritual of Islam as they only kept the esoteric aspect of their beliefs. While the Shiites had recognized Hasan, son of Ali as his successor, the Isma'ilis consider him like a temporary imam probably because he had entered into an agreement with tenemy Caliph Muawiya, as they consider Hussein, the second son to Ali, who was most intransigent, like the true Imam. Hassan ibn Sabbah, by 1090 A.D., who scoured northern Persia to make converts, eventually took hold upon a stronghold, Alamout, in current Syria, a mighty fortress in the end of a valley whence the 'Haschachins', his troop of killer mercenaries originated and allowed the Isma'ili ruler and his successors to negogiate with the powers in the region. The Agha Khans strictly are descending since the 11th century A.D. from the last Alamout ruler
• Alawism appeared in the 9th century A.D. as they believed that Imam Ali was incarnation of Allah. They took refuge into current Syria by the 10th and 11th centuries A.D. Alawis as they had been tolerated by the Shiite princes of Alep were persecuted under the new Seldjoukid rulers. They developed a esoteric syncretist stance with elements of Christianity or even paganism. The esotery of Alawis is accessible to 'cheikhs' only as Alawis do not have mosques but perform the pilgrimage to Mecca, or solemnly commemorate the death of Hussein, the son to Ali, who was killed at the Kerbala Battle. It is only under the French Protectorate in the Near East after WWI, that Alawis passed from a poor farming workforce to more education. Alawis had appeared around 874 A.D. when Muhammad ibn al-Nusayr Namiri al-Abdi claimed that al-Hasan al-Askari, the 11th Shiite imam, had entrusted him with a new revelation. That movement, since the 10th century has developed in Syria and its mystical doctrine is mixing the Qur'an and metempsychosis of souls which formerly had rebelled against God

Alevi

Alevi in Islam is a divergence of Shia and a variety of Sufism. It had been born around 800 A.D. through Imam Riza, issued from Muhammad's family, who turned persecuted by Sunni Abbasids. He then fled to Khorasan in current northeastern Iran and present Turkmenistan. He then trained disciples and sent them to convert Turkish people in Khorasan and Turkestan. Moreover, from 860 to 931 A.D., a Alevi state was created South of Caspian Sea by a descendant of Imam Hassan, son to Ali, the founder of Shia and, about 941-942 A.D., a Arab traveler certified the definitive existence in Central Asia, of Alevi Turks. Turks, generally, fought between the 7th and 9th century A.D., the Umayyads and the Abbasids too because of religion, as both were Sunni Arab dynasties. The birth of Alevi also took place under the influence of ancient Anatolian religions and Paulicianism, a neo-Manichean heresy of 7th century Armenia and then Bogomilism, a Gnostic and Manichean heresy of the 10th century. Alevi professes a kind of trinity or 'Uçler' ('the Three'): Allah (which is divine truth or 'Haqq'), Muhammad (who represents the prophecy) and Ali (representing holiness, a friend to God and the imam, commander of the faithful). Alevi developed a esoteric interpretation of the Qur'an against the literal reading of the Sunnis and Shia too. The message of the Qur'an is universal only but his verses were addressed to the Arabs in given geographical and sociological conditions. Qur'an deepens through science and knowledge as the original scheduling from the Qur'an was in the order of revelation and placed at the origin the command of reading. That order, under the Umayyads, was changed to the length of suras would be a political will of the maimise by elite on education and culture. An initiatory process is also practiced and pilgrimages to the tombs of saints too. The 'dede' ('grandfather' in Turkish), a descendant of the Prophet, is the head of the Alevi community. Alevis, during the Middle Ages, organized themselves into the Bektashi brotherhood, which was founded three centuries after the death of Haci Bektas Veli. That brotherhood played a key role in the islamization of Anatolia and the Balkans. The Ottoman domination was a period of persecution against the Alevi Bektashi but those played an important role in the Janissaries, the elite corps of the Sultan. The Alevis dwelled from Anatolia to Turkestan through the confines of present-day Turkey and Iran, including Kurds therefore. Alevi, today claims to be a modern Muslim tradition as it might represent 15 percent of the current Turkish population. Alevis supported the reforms of Ataturk in the hope that secularism would give them greater freedom

Sufi

Here we have a inner, initiation quest, and esoteric, which originated in the Sunni. Sufis claim that the four founders of the orthodox Sunni schools were Sufis. Sufi has evolved to express the Shiite dissent. According to Sufis, Muhammad, together with the Qur'an, would have received esoteric revelations he would have shared with some of his early companions only. First Sufi groups appeared in Kufa and Basra, in the 8th century A.D. and in Baghdad in the following century. These are brotherhoods founded by spiritual masters, which claim to a spiritual chain that ultimately relates to Muhammad through Ali ibn Abu Talib, the fourth Caliph, cousin of the Prophet and founder of Shia. In some areas, at certain times, local fraternities have, alone, represented Islam like during the islamization of West Africa, for example, or the resistance against Russian advance in Central Asia. Sufism, in general, has often been persecuted by some Sunnis for cause of superstitious or pagan heterodoxy, or being Shiite. A more regular practice of Islam, denial of vices are aspects of Sufi which should lead to the highest degree of faith and personal behavior, that enabling the spiritual drunkenness and knowledge and vision of God. The most remarkable aspect is the 'dhikr,' rhythmically invoking the name of Allah or of the Muslim profession of faith (the 'shahada') as Allah's name has an intrinsic value which acts upon soul. From there, the Sufi must return to the world and act upon it. Rabia al Adawiyya (d. 801 A.D.), Dhul-Nun al-Misri (d. 859), Bayazid al-Bistami (d. 878), Junaid (d. 911), Mansur al-Hallaj (d. 922) are the Sufi masters during the Carolingian times. A certain Ibn Mansur al Hallaj, a Sufi in Baghdad was crucified in 922 for disclosing 'esoteric truths.' It is little known that Emir Abd-el-Kader, a figure of the Algerian resistance to European settlement, was a Sufi master. By the Sufis, as soon as they appeared, Jesus is a figure and a master of wisdom and spirituality

It is clear from the developments above, how much the unity of Islam is only apparent, and often linked to a sovereign, a dynasty, or a period of history, while there are many factors, at the opposite, of fragmentation or dissociation!